Asteroids a Planet Killer :: essays research papers

The universe is a shooting gallery and earth is the bullseye. The earth is always under threat of a doomesday asteroid that will wipe out civilization. There are over one thousand asteroids traveling toward earth and only three quarters are accounted for. Where are the other one forth? No one knows because the government doesn't fund NASA astrologists enough to cover the astroids. Just one impact could end civilization as we know it. No matter where it hits everything would die, even bacteria. To give an estimate how much is spent on asteroid detection. It is said to be less than the cost to operate a single McDonald's franchise. Total disaster would occur no matter where the asteroid hit. Land, sea it doesn't matter. Ocean impact would create a number of things. First, a Tsunami(tidal wave) would be created on impact. The wave would be hundreds for feet high traveling hundreds of miles per hour. It would start to slow down crashing ashore through all coastal city. Then, finally was h up hundreds for miles inland. " The mid-Atlantic Ocean impact ranging from 400 meters to 5 kilometers in diameter. This would generate a tsunami that would sweep across the upper East Coast of the United States to the Appalachian Mountains."(Gottschalk 1) The blast of the impact would equal a 300 gigaton blast of T.N.T. Also, 2.4 seconds after impact, a small fireball with a temperature of 5000'C would sweep across long island. A land fall strike would cause total divistation. The asteroid would create a earth trembling impact causing earth quakes around the world. The binding flash will show impact and the crater would be twenty miles across. Then, a blanket of dust and debris would blanket the earth and block the sun's light. This would occur for hundreds of years and the climate would be disrupted. Global killer no matter where it hits. The end of the world is only 28 years, 10 months, 19 days, 1 hour, 45 minutes, and 39 seconds away. An asteroid named XF11 is on rout e to hit earth directly. October is the month and 2038 is the year. Discovered by Jim Scotti on December 6, 1997 while looking at star with the Arizona Spacewatch Group. The asteroid "is predicted to pass at a rather comfortable distance of about 600,000 miles (about 960,000 kilometers) in 2028," "reported Dr. Donald K.

Faith in Fear and Trembling by Kierkegaard Essay -- Faith Literary Ana

Kierkegaard believes that true faith can only be attained through a double movement of giving up rationality or logic, while at the same time believing one can understand logically. In â€Å"Fear and Trembling† Kierkegaard relates true faith to the Knight of infinite resignation and the Knight of faith; in this paper, I will examine this claim and show why Kierkegaard’s analogy is an excellent metaphor for the double movement which is required in one’s quest to attain faith and why. Kierkegaard’s position on faith is represented with the Knight of infinite resignation and the Knight of faith. The Knight of faith is regarded as the one who believes in that which is absurd. For, he is the knight that is able to believe in the things that are paradoxical. The Knight of faith is aware of the contradiction that occurs and rationally understands it, but believes despite this. Kierkegaard gives a description of this after relating the knight to one in love with a princess he will never have the chance to be with. He describes the knight in this situation claiming, â€Å"I nevertheless believe that I shall get her, namely on the strength of the absurd, on the strength of the face that for God all things are possible† (75). Kierkegaard gives insight into this knight by stating that, â€Å"On this Knight of faith is just as clear: all that can save him is the absurd: and this he grasps by faith. Accordingly he admits the impossibility and at the same time a ccepts the absurd† (76). The other knight Kierkegaard refers to is the Knight of infinite resignation. This is the knight who works within reason and is able to recognize the contradiction or logical impossibility when faced with a situation; such as the situation where Abraham is commanded by God t... ...at Kierkegaard expresses his honest feelings by stating, â€Å"but I do not have faith; this courage I lack† (63). Kierkegaard makes a valid point by stating that a leap of faith requires a double movement. Believing something is not possible before believing it is possible. Faith is not just something that comes and goes for some people. Attaining faith requires a growth through certain stages, the first one being accepting that something cannot and will not be. The two knights that Kierkegaard describes is one the most excellent metaphors to describe the stages a person must go through to make a true leap of faith. Works Cited Huxley, T.H. â€Å"Agnosticism.† Introduction to Philosophy of Religion. Ed. James Kellenger. Pearson, 2007. 144-150. Kierkegaard, Sà ¸ren, and Alastair Hannay. Fear and Trembling. Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin, 1985. Print.

Case Study: Ministry of sound Essay

QUESTION 1 Ministry of sound had to deal wth the environmental issues from the early 1990s they really faced a problem of drug dealing by the security team, because of this palumbo was forced to change his security and brought in professionals, he even hired a psychoanalyst to cope with the gang threats that followed that followed the drug crack down.Palumbo persisted in making his club a safer and a clear environment.During the 1990s he went further to campaign nationally against the use of drugs in youth venues with the ministry led in the transformation of club of club culture from an underground movement associated with acid house into a main stream youth market activity. The ministry established a distinctive logo and brand and invested heavily in club facilities and sound equipment magazines ,radio shows recording business and the main threats are that the business location it is located in a high crime rate which is not good for business since it labels the club very bad and it tarnish the image of the club .the commercialisation of the brand made it top loose the edgy and underground crowds who established the club ,the closure of the ministry in Bankok as a result of law restriction might pose as a threat.opportunies can be seen by introducing young blood ,fashion and also young faces to the club and also increase online broadcasting their music. QUESTION 2 CAPABILITIES The ministry of sound has capabilities it became a brand and also gaining brand recognition .ministry was also recognised as a wide world music life style.Its products portfolio ranging from record labels ,branded electronincs ,world wide tours and also radio shows.ministry of sound started as a small investment and grow by spreading to other countries and also by having a lot of people visiting the club by that it was recognised the whole world and it became a super club.ministry believed in diversification by spreading their wings and starting branded dj equipment ,also offering branded mobile phone games ,magazines not only that they went further an adviertising supported online broadcast music channel was  launched .ministry manages its communication very well its adaptation,internalisation made ministry what it is today, a big brand. By changing the security team the club operated in a clean environment which was safer for its customers and by so doing the club gained value.by introducing a new ceo was a very good move.ministry as a clean and safe environment it will enjoy the benefits of attracting more music lovers .they differentiated themselves by having security professsionals which is a comparative advantage to other clubs ,we agree that the ministry has a strong brand but the closure of the Bankok branch due to the law restriction tell us something that during their market research they did not look at the country s law which is a weakness. QUESTION 3 The main stakeholders of the ministry of sound is first James palumbo he is still the largest shareholders of the business so he want his investment to make profit.shareholders gets dividend annually or increasing share price which is affected by the growth and profitability of the business so that they can get a best dividend. Managers care too much about their responsibility ,job security their salaries by being responsible and doing their duties properly ,they know that they get bonuses so their interest lies in working for a company that shows growth and that succeed in everything it does ,if the ogarnisation grow the managers are show that their jobs are secure Customers want desirable and quality products at affordable prices also they are interested in the continuous production of new products to satisfy their ever increasing needs Capitalist 3i investors are interested in the growth of the business success and if no growth the investor would take his money to other place. Society in general –socially responsible actions positive towards the environment. QUESTION 4 The ministry can use the following strategies : Joint ventures ,is an entity created when two or more firms pool a portion of their resources to create jointly owned organisation .It is very important since ministry can gain access to a particular source and enjoy economies  of scale, risks and cost sharing neutralising and blocking competitors. It can also try mergers and acquisitions through this it can expand its product line or better still sell the business. QUESTION 5 The reogarnisation is very important because it will help put into practise the ministry s focused strategy into action ,it also helps with costs, it also helped by being a useful tool to let go of the managers who might be resistant to change ,in addiction to three division appears to be clearly collecting together previous uncoordinated initiatives within clear organisation structure .the reorganisation will help the new ceo to delegate to divisional heads at the same time as allowing him to hold them accountable as they impose some discipline on the various business.

Sociology: Deviance

†Deviance refers to any behaviour that is considered to be violating social norms or to persons that engage in such behaviour† (Adler & Adler (2009: 21). Deviance does not just occur to any form of behaviour, but we need to bear in mind the fact that behaviour or people that are deviant are only defined as deviant if and only if society views that particular behaviour as deviant (Adler & Adler (2009: 21). Deviance can either be positive, which is over conformity but is at the same time positively evaluated by the audience (Heckert, 1998: 23).There is also negative deviance, which is under conformity but on the other hand negatively evaluated, rate-busting, which refers to those individuals who under conform but are negatively evaluated by society and there is also another term referred to as deviance admiration, which is the â€Å"bad boy† image, which is under-conformity but somehow admired and positively evaluated by society or groups in society (Heckert, 1998: 2 3). Deviance has no fixed definition but instead, it is broad and has various definitions linked to the term.There are however 5 basic definitions for deviance in sociology namely, the Reactive constructionist approach, the Normative approach, Violation of rights, Absolutist approach and lastly, the Statistical approach. The reactive constructionist approach focuses on the reactions of an audience, which is society to certain behaviours. This is when behaviour is only considered deviant if it has been condemned by society. It involves publicly labelling behaviour as deviant and also followed by an equally negative reaction by the public (Dodge, 1985: 18).The normative approach on the other hand defines deviance as a â€Å"departure† or going against the set or generally accepted norms in society (Dodge, 1985: 20). Usually, the norm that has been violated is not usually put into place or is not usually in existence until a behaviour, which society reacts to, is seen as unaccep table and therefore deviant and then the norm is put into place and into existence after such occurrences.The statistical approach focuses on the behaviours that differ from average or normal experiences of society. In this case, the deviant individual or group of individuals engages in behaviour that the majority of the people do not engage in (Heckert, 1998: 25). This form of approach is mainly applied when analysing organisations. With the violation of rights approach, behaviour is considered deviant if it, in any way, violates the rights of any other individual. The individual or individuals hat are considered are labelled and they receive a negative reaction from society for their behaviour. Lastly, the absolutist approach of deviance claims that deviance resides in the very nature of an act and is wrong at all times and in all places (Heckert, 1998: 28). It does not have to depend on the environment, the reaction of the audience or the punishment and severity of the act. Princ iples of right and wrong are applied and an act is deviant once it goes against those principles.With the case of Amanda, who was heavily criticised by the public for killing her sister by stabbing her with a bread knife, the reactive constructionist theory is most applicable because according to her mother, she was just an innocent girl, who made a terrible mistake and her family did not battle forgiving her, but because the media reacted in a certain way, which was negative and the reaction eventually spread and influenced the rest of society in which they started condemning Amanda and making her life miserable, to the extent that she also condemned herself and started hating herself to the point where she believed she was evil and deserved to die. Another issue with deviance is the issue of stigma.Stigma refers to the negative gap or some form of division between the deviant individuals and the people who are not deviant or do not go against the norms of society (Goffman, 1963: 3 ). There is usually a lot of tension by the â€Å"normal† people and it is always the deviants that have to suffer and manage the tension because they are usually the minority group in the cases of deviant acts (Goffman, 1963: 7). Amanda had the stigma of a killer or brutal murderer attached to her by the public and throughout the rest of her life, had had to endure suffering at the hands of the public. She had to cope with the labelling and the gossiping that constantly surrounded her.With the issue of stigmatisation, the individuals who are suffering also have the option of managing the stigma. In Amanda’s case, the one most relevant option that she did have and fairly used was turning to stigmatised others, such as people she was imprisoned with and by turning to sympathetic others, which in this case was her mother and her friends for support and coping because there was not much she could have done such as support groups etc. because she had spent a lot of time in prison (Goffman, 1963: 14). In Amanda’s case, she has her family supporting her saying she is not at fault, in other words that her behaviour was not deviant, while on the other hand, the public viewed her behaviour as deviant.This then brings us to the question about whether there is a difference between deviance and crime. Some crimes may be thought of as deviant but not criminal and other, criminal but not deviant. The safest route to go by is simply saying that the difference separating deviance from crime is the breaking of the law, which is considered a crime or the violating of the social norm, which is deviance (Marshal and Meier, 2011: 16). Basically, people could engage in criminal behaviour, which may be accepted in a particular society, such as drinking and driving, but because it is not generally frowned upon, those people are accepted and are not considered deviant by their society.One other person on the other hand, may commit a deviant act, such as Amanda, wh o was said to have attacked her sister unintentionally, but because society rebukes such, she is considered a deviant, an outcast and is labelled and has no freedom to live her live as she pleases without people making it miserable for her. Labelling, which is closely linked to stigma, refers to the public seeing the deviants as different to anyone else and are mainly carried out by moral entrepreneurs (Marshal and Meier, 2011: 17). There are three different forms of labelling which can be taken into consideration, which is primary deviance, secondary deviance and tertiary deviance. These forms or theories of labelling come with consequences as well.In the case of primary deviance, an individual is given a label but they are not affected by such, so they basically ignore and deny the label given to them by the public (Marshal and Meier, 2011: 21). The second scenario, which is secondary deviance, individuals are given a label and so as a form of escapism, they then live up to that l abel that they have been given, such as someone being call uptight, condescending or in simpler words, a snob, then tends to try and intimidate and bring people down by all means possible (Marshal and Meier, 2011: 20). With tertiary deviance, an individual is labelled, but refuses to neither deny nor accept and instead tries and proves that there is nothing deviant about their behaviour (Marshal and Meier, 2011: 19). In Amanda’s case she was both primarily and secondarily labelled.Her family tried denying the primary labelling for her, but rather she took up secondary deviance, where she actually accepted that she was a murderer and that she deserved to die like a murderer. Moral entrepreneurs are those individuals who try to create and enforce new definitions of morality and what is deviant and what is not (Adler & Adler, 2009: 136). These new definitions that they try and enforce are mainly put in place to try and benefit them and what they believe in (Adler & Adler, 2009: 137). In many cases, if not all, there is always a number of moral entrepreneurs and not just one and they are each trying to act at their own self-interest (Adler & Adler, 2009: 137).In Amanda’s case, the main moral entrepreneurs are the society, Amanda and her own mother. Society created a label for Amanda that she carried with her and was never removed until the day that she died. Society saw her as a criminal who deserved to be punished because in that society, killing people with bread knives was not considered moral, even though they did not know the main reason or what had exactly happened. Amanda on the other hand did not see anything wrong that she had done and instead got negatively influenced by the stigma that had been attached to her and therefore saw herself as a deviant that deserved the most severe punishment possible.With Amanda’s mother, she saw her daughter as the innocent one victimised by society. She blamed society for her daughters’ misery claiming that she had not done anything wrong, even though it was evident that she had murdered her own sisters for reasons unknown, but because she did not see anything wrong with her daughters actions, she believed that she should not be punished even though murder is considered a crime and should therefore be punishable. They then in a way were seen to be a folk devil, which means that they were viewed as a threat and a bad influence to society (Dodge, 1985: 28). It is rather astonishing how Amanda’s case eventually turned out.Some people, mainly family were on her side, while the whole public was against her. Now it is a mystery as to how such situations can be explained and justified. Why would, in one society, people have different beliefs? According to the Marxist socialist theory of deviance, society is not based on consensus and shared values, but rather, it is an outcome of the continuing struggle between the social classes, the elite and the proletariat (Marshal a nd Meier, 2011: 19). In this form of society, which is mainly a capitalist society, there are individuals who exploit others and those who are exploited and therefore those who commit crime are doing those who are exploited justice (Marshal and Meier, 2011: 19).In Amanda’s case, there is no clear reason as to why the crime was committed, but her sentence was not heavy and therefore this could also be a sign as to how much influence they had on the ruling system, showing how much those who are influential can control everything in society ranging from economy to politics and laws. Amanda’s case is a clear example of what we call moral panic. Moral panic, according to Cohen (1972), cited in Victor (1998: 542), is societal response to beliefs about a threat from factors or individuals known as ‘moral deviants’. The group of individuals become defined as a threat to the values as well as the interests of that particular society and they are presented in this w ay by the mass media and other key actors (moral entrepreneurs).Society managed to foster moral panic because a widespread concern about the issue was promoted by much attention by society and basically the whole issue eventually took center stage. According to Adler & Adler (2009: 137), moral panic must be triggered by specific event at the right moment, draw attention to a specific group as a target, have provocative content revealed, and supported by formal and informal communication outlets, which in Amanda’s case happened because now her tragedy attracted much attention from society and basically caused a panic. This again just proves how deviance has no set barriers, but instead the classification of deviance has no set or particular traits, but rather, behaviour is seen as deviant only based on the social definitions that vary from society to society at different times. Society is the biggest role player in distinguishing deviant behaviour and through moral panic, they managed to exclude, label and target deviants because they have gone against what is believed to be social norms.Reference List Adler, P. and Adler, P. (2009). (6th ed). Constructions of Deviance: social power, context and interaction. Belmon, Calif: Thomson/Wadsworth. Pages 135-138; Chapter 17. Cohen, S. (1972). Folk Devils and Moral Panics. St Martin’s: New York. Dodge, D. (1985). Deviant Behaviour: The over-negativized conceptualization of deviance. Los Angeles: California. Goffman, E. (1963). Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity. New York: United States. Heckert, D. M. (1998). Positive deviance: A classificatory model. New York: United States. Marshal, C & Meier, R. (2011). Sociology of Deviant behaviour (14th ed). Belmont: USA.

City Of Manila.Background of a Smart Designed City Essay

The City of Manila has a population of 1.7 million people and is considered as one of the most polluted cities in the world with notorious traffic congestions. The city of Adelaide is on the other hand one of the most liveable cities in the world, with a population of 1.2 million and practically no traffic jams at all. This paper compares these two cities in order to establish what manila can learn from Adelaide. The City of Manila is a relatively small city with a population of about 1.7 million people and an area of around 40 square kilometres. The city can thus be categorized amongst the overpopulated cities of the world (Townsend, 2013). Consequently, Manila has a very high level of pollution and other challenges including traffic and poor drainage system that makes the sanitation very problematic. Background of a Smart Designed City Adelaide is a south Australian city with a population that is close to that of Manila at 1.3 million people. Initially, this city suffered from high levels of pollution owing to its large population and the energy sources being used across the city. First, the transport means today are highly effective reducing the traffic jams by 100% and the city is now considered as a ‘twenty minute city’ owing to the ability to move from one place to another easily (Fajardo, 2011). The reduced traffic jams translate to reduced gas emissions, as do the number of trees planted around schools, churches, parks, reserves, coastlines and transport corridors. These trees have managed to reduce the carbon emissions getting into the atmosphere thus making the city even cleaner. The city is planned very effectively in such a way that the transport systems are effective and diverse comprising of a South Eastern Freeway, Southern Express Way, the Port River Expressway and the Northern Expressway . This arrangement allows for effective transport across the metropolitan area thus making the city accessible without unnecessary congestions. The roads are also mostly very wide with multiple lanes to accommodate the growing number of vehicles in the city. The city has also cut down its use of fossil fuels in favour of renewable energy with a great inclination on solar energy. They have undertaken numerous campaigns to encourage the citizens to install solar panels on their rooftops, with over 200 schools having to depend on this clean energy for their power needs. As such, the city is slowly turning to solar energy to sustain its energy needs (Henderson, 2002). From its initial planning in the days of the first settlers, the city was designed to have two green rings around the city square thus implementing the green city initiative right from its birth. As a result, they have over 3 million trees within the city and a few parks and squares with a lot of trees as well. The green belt here is so extensive that it is rumoured that one can actually feel the fresh air in the city especially if they are from another part of the country or the world. These trees play a big role in keeping the city free of pollution as they mitigate from the effects of the unavoidable carbon emissions. Suggestions for Future Development and Lose Cost Estimates In order to reach up to Adelaide’s standards, the city of Milan has to undergo a number of transformations within its layout. First, the city’s roads must be reconstructed to accommodate the traffic and reduce the traffic jams. This may cost as much as $100 billion seeing as there is a need for a complete overhaul in the city’s transport system. For efficiency, subways may also be found necessary especially seeing as Manila is in a developing country and thus the urban population is likely to keep growing. The green technology in terms of shifting to solar power as a main source of energy must also be considered seeing as the country currently depends on fossil fuels for their energy. This shift should cost the government about $20 million in equipment and education programs about how to use them as well as their maintenance (Townsend, 2013). In doing this, the city will have cut down on pollution seeing as the dependence on fossil fuels is by far the most hazardous human tendency. As for planting trees and creating a green city, it should be noted that the best trees in Manila can be sourced locally and should thus be relatively cheap. The challenge however would be the sensitization of the masses in order to gain their support and cooperation for maintenance of the trees. It can thus be estimated that the local government will need about $5 million for this project and with the cooperation of the citizens and the private sector the city should qualify for a smart city categorization within approximately 30 years from the implementation date (Townsend, 2013). For this to happen however, the city’s administration will have to obtain the support and cooperation of the general public and the private sector. References Fajardo, B.K. (2011). Filipino crosscurrents. University of Minnesota Press: Minneapolis, MN. Henderson, V. (2002). Urbanization in developing countries. The World Bank Research Observer, 17(1), 89-112. Townsend, M.A. (2013). Smart cities: big data, civic hackers, and the quest for a new utopia. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. Source document

Freedom Of Press

Freedom of Press Freedom of the press or freedom of the media is the freedom of communication and expression through mediums including various electronic media and published materials. While such freedom mostly implies the absence of interference from an overreaching state, its preservation may be sought through constitutional or other legal protections.With respect to governmental information, any government may distinguish which materials are public or protected from disclosure to the public based on classification of information as sensitive, classified or secret and being therwise protected from disclosure due to relevance of the information to protecting the national interest. Many governments are also subject to sunshine laws or freedom of information legislation which are both used to define the extent of national interest.The Universal Declaration of Human Rights declares: â€Å"Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference, and impart information and ideas through any media regardless of frontiers† This philosophy is usually accompanied by legislation ensuring various degrees of freedom of scientific research (known s scientific freedom), publishing, press and printing the depth to which these laws are entrenched in a country's legal system can go as far down as its constitution.The concept of freedom of speech is often covered by the same laws as freedom of the press, thereby giving equal treatment to spoken and published expression. Beyond legal definitions, several non-governmental organizations use other criteria to Judge the level of press freedom around the world. Some of those organizations include the following: Reporters Without Borders The Committee to Protect Journalists (CPJ) Freedom House Many of the traditional means of delivering information are being slowly superseded by the increasing pace of modern technological advance.Almost every conventional mo de of media and information dissemination has a modern counterpart that offers significant potential advantages to Journalists seeking to maintain and enhance their freedom of speech. A few simple examples of such Satellite television Web-based publishing (e. g. , blogging) Voice over Internet protocol (VOIP) Every year, Reporters Without Borders establishes a ranking of countries in terms of their freedom of the press.The Freedom of the Press index, an annual survey of edia independence in 197 countries and territories, is based on responses to surveys sent to Journalists that are members of partner organizations of the RWB, as well as related specialists such as researchers, Jurists and human rights activists. The survey asks questions about direct attacks on Journalists and the media as well as other indirect sources of pressure against the free press, such as non-governmental groups.The annual index contains the most comprehensive data set available on global media treedom and i s a key resource tor scholars, policymakers, international institutions, media, and activists. The index assesses the degree of print, broadcast, and internet freedom in every country in the world, analyzing the events of each calendar year. It provides numerical rankings and rates each country's media as â€Å"Free,† â€Å"Partly Free,† or â€Å"Not Free. Country narratives examine the legal environment for the media, political pressures that influence reporting, and economic factors that affect access to information As of 2013, the United States is ranked 32nd in the Reporters Without Borders Press Freedom Index. There was a fall from 20th in 2010 to 42nd in 2012, which was attributed to arrests of Journalists covering the Occupy movement. In 2011-2012, the countries where press was the most free were Finland, Norway and Germany, followed by Estonia, Netherlands, Austria, Iceland, and Luxembourg.The country with the least degree of press freedom was Eritrea, followe d by North Korea, Turkmenistan, Syria, Iran, and China. Freedom of the press in the United States is protected by the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. The First Amendment to the U. S. Constitution, says that â€Å"Congress shall make no law†¦. abridging (limiting) the freedom of speech, or of the press † Freedom of speech is the liberty to speak openly without fear of government restraint.It is closely linked to freedom of the press because this freedom includes both the right to speak and the right to be heard. In the United States, both the freedom of speech and freedom of press are commonly called freedom of expression. This clause is generally understood as prohibiting the government from interfering with the printing and distribution of information or opinions, although freedom of the press, like freedom of speech, is subject to some restrictions, such as defamation law and copyright law. The Constitution's framers provided the press with broad fre edom.This freedom was considered necessary to the establishment of a strong, independent press sometimes called â€Å"the fourth branch† of the government. An independent press can provide citizens with a variety of information and opinions on matters of public importance. However, freedom of press sometimes collides with other rights, such as a defendant's right to a fair trial or a citizen's right to privacy. In recent years, there has been increasing concern about extremely aggressive journalism, including stories about people's sexual lives and photographs of people when they were in a private setting.The framers' conception of freedom of the press has been the subject of intense historical debate, both among scholars and in the pages of Judicial opinions. At the very least, those who drafted and ratified the Bill of Rights purported to embrace the notion, derived from William Blackstone, that a free press may not be licensed by the sovereign, or otherwise restrained in a dvance of publication. And, although the subject remains a lively topic of academic debate, the Supreme Court itself reviewed the historical record in 1964 in New York Times Co. . Sullivan and concluded that the central meaning of the First Amendment embraces s well a rejection of the law of seditious libel i. e. , the power of the sovereign to impose subsequent punishments, from imprisonment to criminal fines to civil damages, on those who criticize the state and its officials. To a great extent, however, what we mean by freedom of the press today was shaped in an extraordinary era of Supreme Court decision-making that began with Sullivan and concluded in 1991 witn Conen v. Cowles Media Co.During that remarkable period, the Court ruled least 40 cases involving the press and fleshed out the skeleton of freedoms addressed only rarely in prior cases. In contrast, although the Court in the early part of the last century had considered the First Amendment claims of political dissidents with some frequency, it took nearly 150 years after the adoption of the Bill of Rights, and the First Amendment along with it, for the Court to issue its first decision based squarely on the freedom of the press.Over the course of the quarter-century following Sullivan, the Court made it its business to explore the ramifications of the case on a virtually annual basis. During that period, the Supreme Courts elaboration of what we mean by a free press focused on the nature of the official restraint lleged to compromise that freedom as well as the extent to which the First Amendment protects the press from a given species of governmental action or inaction. Thus, in cases such as Near and the Pentagon Papers case (1971 ‘s New York Times Co. . United States), the Court established that freedom of the press from previous restraints on publication is nearly absolute, encompassing the right to publish information that a president concluded would harm the national security, if not th e movements of troopships at sea in time of war. In 1974's Miami Herald Publishing Co. v. Tornillo, the Court embraced the analogous proposition that the overnment has virtually no power to compel the press to publish that which it would prefer to leave on the proverbial cutting room floor.In that regard, however, it must be noted that not all media are created equal when it comes to entitlement to the full protections of the First Amendments press clause. Most significantly, because of a perceived scarcity of the electromagnetic spectrum, the Court has held that Congress and the Federal Communications Commission may regulate the activities of broadcasters operating over public airwaves in a manner that would surely violate the First Amendment if applied to newspapers.Compare Red Lion Broadcasting v. FCC (1969) with Tornillo. ) The Courts reasoning in Red Lion, in which it upheld the Commissions Fairness Doctrine and personal attack rule i. e. , the right of a person criticized on a broadcast station to respond to such criticism over the same airwaves licensed to that station has never been disavowed, although the Justices have expressly declined to extend it to other, later-developed communications media, including cable television (1994's Turner Broadcasting v.FCC) and the Internet (1997's Reno v. ACLU), to which the scarcity rationale for regulation is plainly napplicable. Sullivan and cases that followed also hold that the First Amendment protects the publication of false information about matters of public concern in a variety of contexts, although with considerably less vigor than it does dissemination of the truth.Even so, public officials and public fgures may not recover civil damages for injury to their reputations unless they were the victims of a reckless disregard for truth in the dissemination of a calculated falsehood. Indeed, private persons may not collect civil damages for reputational harm caused by falsehoods relating to a matter f public c oncern unless the publishers conduct violates a fault-based standard of care. And although expressions of opinion are not always immune from legal sanction, in its 1990 decision in Milkovich v. Lorain Journal Co. the Court held that statements not capable of being proven false, or which reasonable people would not construe as statements of fact at all, but rather as mere rhetorical hyperbole, are absolutely protected by the First Amendment. Indeed e ou nas rejected arguments advanced by the institutional press that, because of its structural role in nsuring the free flow of information in a democratic society, it ought to enjoy unique protections from otherwise generally applicable laws that inhibit its ability to gather and report the news.Thus, in 1991 in Cohen v. Cowles Media Co. , the Court effectively concluded the treatise on the freedom of the press it began in Sullivan; it did so when it emphasized that the press is properly subject to liability under the generally applicabl e law of contracts when it breaks a promise to keep a sources identity confidential, even when it does so in order to report truthful information about the ources involvement in a matter of public concern.In the decade following Cohen, the Court again fell largely silent when it came to the First Amendments application to the institutional press. As the 21st century dawned, however, the Court interrupted that silence, at least briefly, to revisit the extent to which a generally applicable law such as the federal wiretap statute can constitutionally impose criminal penalties and civil liability on the dissemination by the press of the contents of unlawfully recorded telephone conversations, at least when the information so disseminated is the truth about a matter of public concern.While it is undeniable fact that freedom of press is essential ingredient of democracy, it does not mean it will advance the goals of democracy. A free press plays a key role in sustaining and monitoring a healthy democracy, as well as in contributing to greater accountability, good government, and economic development. Most importantly, restrictions on media are often an early indicator that governments intend to assault other democratic institutions. According to the Freedom of the Press index, only 14. 5 percent of the world's citizens live in countries that enjoy a free press.In the rest of the world, governments as well as non-state actors control the viewpoints that reach citizens and brutally repress independent voices who aim to promote accountability, good governance, and economic development.

Creating a World Beyond Reality Essay

In Azar Nafisi’s â€Å"Selections from Reading Lolita in Tehran†, Nafisi and her students, rather than denying the reality that they live in, created a world alternate from their reality. In their physical world the government has stripped them of their individualism. They were unable to act or do as individuals would, thus they went to the book club as a way to escape reality. It gave them insight into a world they could not experience. Literature becomes their color in their bleak world of black and white restrictions. They came to the realization, through their readings, that they had given their government the power to take away from them their individuality. They created a fictional world to let them be individuals and escape the restrictions that their physical environment placed upon them. With this fictional world, they rebelled against their government and used it as a way to escape their harsh reality. Possessing their fictional world allowed them to remain unique individuals. Fiction can express truth as effectively as reality. The way someone views reality can be their own fiction. Nafisi and her students did not use fiction as a way to deny their reality but instead it opened up a window of many minds other than their own. They learn from fiction just as much if not more than they do with reality. Fiction brought them realities they never would have been able to be aware of in their physical world â€Å"She fashions her universe not through physical force, as does the king, but through imagination and reflection† (Nafisi 259). They learn through fiction that they have one thing that the Revolution did not and could not take away from them, their imagination They learn that with their imagination it makes them each their own unique person. Fiction helped them realize more about themselves and more about reality. Their situation is similar to the character of that book, although they cannot do anything to chance their lives through force, they have their imagination and that itself is enough to make a differences for themselves. Furthermore, Nafisi and her students enabled themselves to experience new worlds by exposing themselves to different realities from the books they read. Instead of denying they are now aware of other worlds beyond their own. â€Å"do not, under any circumstances, belittle a work of fiction by trying to turn it into a carbon copy of real life: what we search for in fiction is not so much reality but the epiphany of truth† (Nafisi 248). They did not try to hide reality with their created world, only to better their state of mind by allowing themselves the freedom to think as individuals. Nafisi did not want the purpose of this book club to make her students try to live the realities of the books, she wanted to make them aware of realities that they are unable to experience physically. Their government has suppressed them and they are not allowed any individuality so the purpose of the book club enabled them â€Å"to experience how the ordinary pebble of ordinary life could be transformed into a jewel through the magic eye of fiction. † (Nafisi 252). The only way they can get away from their dull lives is through this book club. By reading, it brightens their lives in way they could never be able to do on their own. Their fictional creation allows them to be individuals and escape restrictions that their physical environment has on them. In the book club, Nafisi and her students are given â€Å"the possibility of a boundless freedom when all options are taken away† (Nafisi 262). They find a way to be stay their real unique selves through their learning. â€Å"Reality has become so intolerable, she said, so bleak, that all I can paint now are the colors of my dreams† (Nafisi 253). The book club is the only way they can get a break from their reality. It helps the girls keep their distinct selves. Dreams are something the government cannot take away from someone, just like their created world they still have something personal left of them. â€Å"acts of writing are his means of escape. He is a hero because he refuses to become like all the rest. † (Nafisi 262). Their fictional world is some place for the girls to flee to. Reading the writing helps them see things from a different perspective they are unable to encounter, the story they create is their fantasy and thats what keeps them individuals. The Revolution is trying to mold them into people they want them to be, while they are creating themselves. The government is trying to control their reality and their fiction. Nafisi and her students are rebelling against their government not only by attending this book club but with the creation of their fictional world. Their fictional world opens up their minds and empowers them to exercise their right to be able to think how they wish to. That is something the government tried but could not take away from them. Nafisi and her students are not denying their reality by creating this world of theirs, they have accepted it in order to build a barrier around themselves from that reality. â€Å"An absurd fictionality ruled our lives. We tried to live in the open spaces, in the chinks created between that room, which had become our protective cocoon and the censor’s world of witches and goblins outside† (Nafisi 264). The veil they are forced to wear, is a symbol of fictionality because the Revolution is forcing everyone to pretend to be someone who they are not. The book club is a safe haven for their individuality. It protects their different characteristics from the government. With their fictional world, they are going against the government and not letting their authorities oppress them. â€Å"These girls, my girls, had both a real history and a fabricated one† (Nafisi 265). Keeping both worlds is an act of rebellion against government who tried to make them conform to the real standards of their society. â€Å"Is she aware, Sanaz, of her own power? Does she realize how dangerous she can be when her every stray gesture is a disturbance to public safety? † (Nafisi 265). They are the only ones who have control over how and what they think. By creating this fictional world they are making changes against the government. â€Å"where we simultaneously invented ourselves and were figments of someone else’s imagination† (Nafisi 263). Nafisi and her students are living through the stories they read, like being the characters that they created, it makes them stronger, inspires them. Fiction has become a coping mechanism for them, giving them stronger will to deal with reality. â€Å"to experience how the ordinary pebble of ordinary life could be transformed into a jewel through the magic eye of fiction. †(Nafisi 252). They are able to view things with different eyes, in the books they read there is a much more optimistic view than their reality. Seeing things through someone else’s perspective lightens the burden of their reality. They can escape real life momentarily and see things from an unrestricted point of view. Their created world is something that gives them strength to carry on with their daily lives. Denying reality does not help, therefore when they create the fictional world of theirs they realize that the government is trying to take away from who they are. In reality they are the ones who have power over their own minds if not anything else. â€Å" imagine us the way we sometimes didn’t dare to imagine ourselves in our most private and secret moments, in the most extraordinarily ordinary instances of life, listening to music†¦ or reading Lolita in Tehran. † (Nafisi 250). In their real world they always have to be careful of letting themselves show their true selves, but with fiction they are not afraid to be themselves. In fiction, they compare their own situations with the characters in the books they read. Those books teach them things such as totalitarianism to being happy a goal. â€Å"the most central of which was how these great works of imagination could help us in our present trapped situation as women. We were not looking for blueprints†¦we did hope to find a link between the open spaces the novels provided and the closed ones we were confined to† (Nafisi 259). These novels become the girls source of freedom. With these books they are allowed to freely interpret and believe whatever they with in contrast to their reality where they are not allowed to have their own opinions. With their imagination they are not denying themselves, but rather filling in the spaces that they are missing. They cannot experience many things in real life so to fill the void, they do so with fiction. By finding a link between fiction and reality they found a way to keep their individualism. And accepting and creating, fiction allows for them to have a stronger will in order to keep who they are even in the world they are in. â€Å"Perhaps one way of finding out the truth was to do what we did: to try to imaginatively articulate these two worlds and, through that process, give shape to our vision and identity† (Nafisi 264). They are not denying reality, rather it helps them to accept it, they use this world to get through reality, their world reality or imagination motivates them to continue having a strong will and continue moving forward. Not only does it give them the strength to carry on but it keeps their identities in their minds by accepting and personalizing their fantasies motivating them to be individuals. In conclusion, Nafisi and her students have found a way to escape their restrictions and can let themselves be who they want to be through fiction. With the use of literature, Nafisi and her students are trying to reshape and create their own reality. Although their freedoms are temporary, Nafisi’s home is safe from the censor the Revolution put on them that limits their thoughts and actions. They now have power over their minds, something they must rebel against the government to be able to keep for themselves. To be able to keep that power over their minds they are keeping their individualism. Because the girls comply with the government and also participate in the book club, they are not denying reality instead they are learning ways to accept and cope with it. Through fiction Nafisi and her students learned more about themselves and the powers of imagination.