Justice, Crime and Ethics Essay Example for Free

Justice, Crime and Ethics Essay Justice is mainly concerned with the appropriate ordering of persons and things within the society. Thus when one is aggrieved by another person, he or she is supposed to seek justice to be administered on the person who has violated the rights of the other. Thus the person whose rights are violated is not supposed to take law on his hands and punish the person who has violated his rights but is supposed to seek justice from competent bodies in the land which have the mandate of administering justice. This is very important to the society as it enables the members of the society to live in harmony and to have standard means by which they can seek legal redress (McCarthy, McCarthy, 2001). Crime can be regarded as actions that lead to the violation of the set rules and regulations which have been set by the government. A crime can also arise as a result of a person’s behavior deviating from the prevailing norms as set by cultural standards which stipulate the manner in which the behavior of human being ought to be. When a crime is committed to a person in respect to personal or private rights a civil crime is said to have taken place whereas when the nature of the crime is that which violates public law then a criminal offence is said to have taken place. For the society to live in an orderly manner there is need for existence of laws that govern the conduct of its members so that no member of the society has his rights violated and in case they are violated then there should be competent means by which they are addressed (McCarthy, McCarthy, 2001). Read more:Â  Justice Denied is Justice Delayed Ethics basically refers to a situation where one feels under duty to behave morally, in so doing a person avoids acting in a manner that is likely to cause harm to other people within the society. Actions which are ethically motivated results into a situation where majority of the society members are affected by such decisions in positive way. Ethics addresses the determination of moral values, how it is possible to attain the desired moral outcomes, how moral agency or capacity develops in certain situations and the kind of moral values that members of the society should abide by (McCarthy, McCarthy, 2001). The criminal justice process is a procedure through which the person who is responsible for violating the laws of the land is actually sued in order to determine whether the alleged person actually committed the offence as claimed by the plaintiff. This is usually done in a court of law where the defendant is given a chance to defend himself. The court then determines whether the defendant is guilty or not before passing its judgment (McCarthy, McCarthy, 2001).

Strategies to Control Sand Production

Strategies to Control Sand Production CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION   1.1 Background Figure 1.1 Sand Production Process Throughout the years, there have been incessantly developing and using various kind of sand control applications in the reservoirs to control the sand production. However, it has been a vital role in the oil and gas industry. In fact, it is very challenging to achieve greater results. Moreover, with todays technologies, the cost of operating is higher than before, the impact of sand production is difficult to be ignored. Moreover, that is not all the consequence of sand formation in the well, and it will probably lead to various of the problem such as loss of integrity, causing the wellbore to collapse, and causing erosion of downhole and surface equipment. The fact is, it is a crucial activity during the production of oil and gas. Here is why, in the sand formation fluid, it consists of gas, oil, and water. It can flow through the sand, into the production wells are produced through perforations into the well. Mostly, it will affect concerning economics to safety hazards in the well productivity. On the other hands, it is a major concern in the oil and gas industry. When the sand produced is lifted up to the surface, sand can damage surface equipment such as valves, pipelines, pumps, separators, and more. It is must be removed from the produced fluids at the surface. Besides, sand flowing through the formation, will collapse the casing and be slowing the production rate. There are several problems cause by sand production. These problems include plugging the perforations, wellbore instability, failure of sand control completions, environmental effects, and erosion of downhole and surface equipment, pipeline blockage and leakage. These devastating consequences lead to more frequent well intervention and workovers generating additional needs for sand disposal particularly in offshore and swamp locations. The impacts of sand production are nearly always detrimental to the short and long term productivity of the well. Sand control has always played a major role in oil production. Most of the oil and gas fields having the problem during sand production. Some of the wells produce from unconsolidated sandstones that produce formation sand with reservoir fluids. Some reservoirs can produce several tons of sand in a day, and it is critical that the operators require downhole sand control in all sand prone wells.      Ã‚   Sand occurs when the stresses of the formation exceed the strength of the formation. The formation strength is derived from the natural cementing material that binds the sand grains together. Sand grains are also held together by the cohesive forces caused formation water unable to move. The stress of the formation sand grains is caused by many factors, such as tectonic actions, overburden pressure, pore pressure, stress changes from drilling, and the drag forces of the producing fluids. When fluids are produced from reservoirs, stresses are imposed on the sand grains that tend to move them into the wellbore, along with the fluids produced. These stresses are caused by pressure difference in the formation, fluid frictional forces, and the weight of the overburden. In the sand prone reservoir, it has several methods of sand control which can be installed in production wells. So, it is important to determine the correct sand control techniques in each particular situation. For instance, we need to understand the behavior of different aspects of the sand formation in multiphase flow, in orders to help us to identify the sand formation. Thus, it provides us with the type of sand control completion to choose for production wells. As a matter of facts, it able to improve the behavior of the sand from the well we produced and to keep sand from entering the well along with the hydrocarbons. It depends on the characteristics of the reservoir. There are several techniques have been used for sand control in sandstone reservoirs. Moreover, to minimizing sand production from wells, such as maintenance and workover, gravel packing, sand consolidation, rate restriction, and more. In order, to prevent sand production it depends on different reservoir parameters and economic conditions. Therefore, sand exclusion methods are required. 1.2  Problem Background Sand control is to minimizing the sand and fine production during petroleum production. Sand and fine produced with oil and gas can cause erosion of production facilities and equipment, resulting in production downtime, expensive repairs and potentially loss of containments. The cause of sand production is always damaging to the long-term productivity of the well. Although some of the wells are manageable for sand production. In addition, attempting to manage sand production well is not easy. They are many problems need to be the concern to operate the wells. To improve the mitigating sand production that exists in the oil and gas industry as the reservoir sits in sand-prone formation. The potential to produce sand in the formation increases as the reservoir has been depleted. It is a likely occurrence in production and injects wells because of the effective overburden pressure of the formation increases. Also as the production rate from the reservoir increases the fluid pressure gradient near the wellbore tends to draw sand into the wellbore. Increasing reservoir production rate raises the probability of reaching the reservoir boundaries. Problems that were usually found in the sand formation especially Unconsolidated formations. Water breakthrough the transitional zone of formations. High consumption of reservoir pressure in formations. Unusual forces of the high lateral tectonic force in formations. Unpredicted change in flow rate 1.2.1 Effects Sand Production The effects of sand production are often detrimental to the productivity of a well in the long run. Downhole equipment might be blocked or damaged and surface facilities disabled. 1.2.1.1 Erosion Of Downhole And Surface Equipment When sand was produced in the formation at the high velocity, it will erode the surface and downhole equipment. It will be leading to the frequent maintenance to replace the equipment. If the erosion is severe or occurs over a sufficient length of time, complete failure of surface and downhole equipment may occur, resulting in the critical safety and environmental problems as well as deferred production. High-pressure gas containing sand particles expanding through the surface choke is the most hazardous situation. For some equipment failures, a rig assisted workover may be required to repair the damage. Figure 1.2 Surface Choke Failure Due To Erosion By Formation Sand (Source: Completion Tech., 1995) Figure 1.3 Eroded Piston Head (Source: Han Et Al., 2011) 1.2.1.2 Formation Subsidence The impact of producing sand formation, it can collapse the formation. As time goes by, a tremendous amount of sand will be generated, which will be creating a void at the casing. As more and more sand is produced, it will be made the void larger and larger. Furthermore, the void will collapse into it. Thus it decays the material. Most importantly, sand grains will create a lower permeability in the formation with a wider area of grain sizes. It will lose the productivity of the sand production. 1.2.1.3 Sand Accumulation In Surface Equipment Reservoir fluid will carry the sand up to the surface, with higher velocity production in the fluid. However, sand particles frequently inhabit in the facilities such as separators, heaters, pumps, and condensers. Plus, it will accumulate in these facilities, it is a must to be cleanup from time to time. Meanwhile, it will delay the production, and the well must shut down, and extras cost needed to be clean up the wellbore production. Production volume of the separator will decrease if it filled with sand. Similarly, it cannot handle gas, oil, and water. 1.2.1.4 Sand Disposal It constitutes a problem in formations producing sand especially in areas where there are stringent environmental constraints. Offshore processing systems that do not satisfy anti-pollution regulation the separated sand is to be transported onshore for disposal constituting additional production cost. 1.2.2 Causes Of Sand Production Rock strength and fluid flow are the elements that are affecting the factors that are affecting the tendency of the formation and the wellbore. Thus, sand particles consist of fine grain-size and load bearing solids formation in the production. Production rates are usually maintained at a consistent level so that it can avoid the production of the load bearing particles, but causing the production rates low. 1.2.2.1 Production Rate Higher the fluid of the pressure near the wellbore, thus the rate of production will be increasing, which will move the sand into the wellbore. Consequently, pressure differential and frictional drag forces will surpass the compressive strength in the reservoir. However, for wells that below the pressure differential pressure and frictional drag forces is not strong to exceed the exceed the compressive strength of the formation, therefore it causing sand production rate reduce. In order, to reduce the productions rate, it needs to slow it down at certain levels. So that, the flow rate will be within the acceptance range of the production of the well. 1.2.2.2 Pore Pressure Reduction When the reservoir fluid in production diminishes, it causes the pressure and pore pressure to reduce. As it reduces, the production of the well will slowly deplete. Hence, by decreasing the pressure will generate the stress at the formation sand, it will make the overburden pressure to be increasing. Moreover, formation sand particles may be crushed or break loose from its matrix at some time in reservoir life which could be produced along with the reservoir fluids. The formation might subside if the effective stress exceeds the formation strength due to compaction of reservoir rock from the reduction in pore pressure. 1.2.2.3 Increasing Water Production When the water cut increased, sand production will increase as well. These occurrences can be explained by two mechanisms. Each sand grains were surrounded by the surface tension of the connate water, which are the cohesiveness to certain grains in the water wet sandstone formation. Besides, when the surface tension forces and the cohesiveness of grain-to-grain are reducing. Alternatively, the productions of the connate water will be produced. The stability of the sand arch perforation has been shown to be limited greatly by the production of water resulting in the production of sand. Whereas, an arch is a hemispherical cap of interlocking sand grains that is scheduled at constant drawdown and flow rate preventing sand production (Jon Carlson et al., 1992). A second mechanism by which water production affects sand production is related to the effects of relative permeability. As the water cut increases, the relative permeability to oil decreases. This result in an increasing pressure differential being required to produce oil at the same rate. An increase in pressure differential near the wellbore creates a greater shear force across the formation sand grains. Once again, the higher stresses can lead to instability of the sand arch around each perforation and subsequent sand production (Completion tech., 1995). Figure 1.4 Geometry Of A Stable Arch Surrounding A Perforation (Source: Completion Tech., 1995) 1.3 Objectives The main objectives of this research are: To explain the properties and importance of sand control required in bottom-hole production. To analyze the effectiveness of chemical additives in sand control. To evaluate the effectiveness of clay-sawdust as a possible sand control material in the petroleum industry. 1.4  Problem Statement How to increase the fluid velocity of the sand produced and increase the productivity of the sand production? How to determine the suitability of chemical additive in sand control? How can plastic consolidation be custom engineered and manufactured in accordance to oil sands reservoir properties for optimal sand control? 1.5  Scope Of Study To complete the final year project, the student is required to complete the final year project titled Evaluation of Clay-Sawdust Mixture in Sand Control Application. This project requires the fulfilment of few objectives of study that requires the student to learn the properties and importance of sand control required in bottom-hole production. The scopes of study that will be covered in this paper include several aspects: To explain the properties and importance of sand control required in bottom-hole production. To analyse the effectiveness of chemical additives in sand control. To evaluate the effectiveness of clay-sawdust as a possible sand control material in the petroleum industry. To analyse the type of clay that found in the sand control To evaluate the alternate sand control method for sand production consolidation by injecting the chemical additive that will be ideal for the reservoir well. 1.6  Thesis Outline The thesis is divided into five chapters. Chapter one gives an introduction and problem facing during production. It also states the objectives and defines the scope. Chapter two talks about literature review on the subject matter sand control selection, chemical sand consolidation, in situ formation consolidation, resin coated sand consolidation, permeability and porosity of reservoir. The methodology is discussed in chapter three. Chapter four focuses on results discussion. Chapter five gives conclusions and recommendations of the thesis. CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1  SAND CONTROL SELECTION Figure 2.1 Sand Control Type Many unconsolidated heavy oil and bitumen reservoirs require a sand control screen system to prevent sand particle influx into the wellbore to minimize surface casing erosion and environmental and remedial costs. It needs to justify the problems which related to the downhole sand control system and prediction the desired amount of the production rate in the reservoir of sand would produce. Sand production can be a significant issue when producing from unconsolidated reservoirs. Hydrocarbon production from unconsolidated sandstone reservoirs can plague with potentially erosive but mostly of the sand production. However, it will affect the movement of the formation sand causing it to re-orientation of the stresses and fluid velocity The selection of the sand control method to be used in a reservoir depends on conditions of the reservoir field and economic considerations. Additionally, to determining which sand control techniques are suitable for the field. There are many different sand control methods each with pros and cons. Such as, Rate control or exclusion Non-impairing completion techniques Selective perforation practices Screens (without gravel packs) Slotted liners Wire-wrapped screens Premium screens Expandable screens Pre-packed screens Gravel packs Frac packs Chemical sand consolidation In situ formation consolidation Resin coated sand or gravel consolidation 2.2  CHEMICAL SAND CONSOLIDATION In chemical sand consolidation, there is two type of method. utilised It is being used where the possibility and size of the sand production are considered low and is one of the preventive technique to pumped before sand production initiated. The latter is considered as more of a remedial technique in the increasing sand production. Chemical consolidation is mostly being used in a short, perforated intervals. 2.2.1  IN SITU FORMATION CONSOLIDATION Figure 2.2 In Situ Formation Consolidation In situ formation consolidation, it utilises by injecting resins liquid into the formation through the perforations and a catalyst is required for hardening. It will harden and forms a consolidated mass of the sand grains which sand grains will bind together at the contact points and increase its unconfined compressive strength. Certain catalysts are mix into the resin at the surface. Hence, it needed time and temperature to harden the resin. In this treatment need to be considered to performed through all the perforations, thus after the treatment, the well will be permeable and consolidation might not deteriorate with time. However, it can increase the compressive strength of the formation, so it will be sufficient to withstand the forces while during the production of the flow rates. Similarly, a suitable cementing job is a must for this method because to prevent the resin from channeling the casing. On the contrary, the perforation should not be treated at shaley zones because of the low permeability, and it is hard for the fluids to flow in place. In situ formation consolidation leaves the wellbore fully open. It is important where large outside diameter downhole completion equipment is needed. While in situ formation can be done through tubing or in wells with small diameter casing. 2.2.2  RESIN COATED SAND CONSOLIDATION There is two different way of injecting resin coated sand consolidation down the well and into the perforation. So that, it will maintain the sand surface. Thus sand pack will be bind together as the resin coating become harden. Some of the sand left in the casing after the operation. Whereas, this method needs to be perforated in order, to clean out the sand and controlled the flow rate. Besides, resin coated include pumping sand into the well to filled the perforation and casing. Although, bottom hole temperature of the well will be causing the resin to complete the cure into a consolidated pack. After that, sand consolidation packs able to drilled out the casing and leaving the resin coated sand in the perforations. Some of the remaining in the consolidation will act as a permeable filter to prevent the production of the sand formation, the uses of the resin coated are to prepacked sand screens. Despite, using resin coated can be complex. First, and most important, it requires that all perforations be filled completely with the resin coated sand, and the sand will cure. The perforations increasingly, as zone length and deviation from the vertical increase. Secondly, the resin coated with sufficient compressive strength. Nevertheless, it has poor longevity, as most wells do not produce sand free for extended periods of time. 2.3  PERMEABILITY OF RESERVOIR Figure 2.3 Permeability Absolute permeability is the resistance to fluid flow in a porous media when it is the only fluid phase present. The permeability is a measure of the ability of the reservoir rock to transmit fluid. It is the conductivity of the reservoir rock (Gates 2012). If it takes a lot of pressure to squeeze fluid through rock, that rock has low permeability. If fluid passes through the rock easily, it has high permeability. Permeability is measured in the unit of milli darcy (one milli darcy is 1/1000 of a Darcy). The rate of oil and gas can decrease if there are decreases in permeability of reservoir sands. Interstitial water and clay content are what contains in reservoir sand. (Jiang, et al., November 10, 2010) After drilling progress in initiated the production of oil, water will infiltrate into the sand from drilling mud. The water will have less salinity compared to the pure original water. Swelling of clay particles is caused by the fresh water. Influence of driving pressure porous medium is a measure of the ease with which fluids may pass through the medium. The equation by which permeability to liquids may be calculated by laboratory measurements is: (Equation. 2.1) This equation gives permeability, k, in Darcys if viscosity, u, is expressed in centipoises; the rate of flow, Q, in cubic centimetres per second; length, L, in centimetres; area, A, in square centimetres; and pressure differential, P1P2, in atmospheres. This equation, known as Darcys law, is also used to calculate gaseous permeability if the volumetric rate of flow is measured at mean pressure. There will be no reactions between the flowing fluids because it is one of the limiting conditions for the constancy of permeability. Swelling when wetted with waters is due to the clay contain. 2.4  SAWDUST Figure 2.4 Sawdust Sawdust is a tiny-sized and powdery wood waste produced by cutting, grinding, drilling, sanding and slicing wood with a saw or other tools. The size of sawdust particles depends on the types of wood, which the sawdust is collected and the size of the saw teeth. Besides, sawdust is an effective, low-cost absorbent, which is widely used in many industrials. In addition, sawdust being essentially a lignocellulosic material is not easily deteriorated but rather stable on recalcitrant in the environment, and rarely produces odour during its long-term biodegradation process (Terazawa et al., 1999; Zavala et al., 2005). Furthermore, benefits of using sawdust as a composite material are because it has desirable physical properties. Such as low apparent specific gravity(density), high porosity, high water retention, moderate water drainage, high bacteria tolerance, and biodegradability at an acceptable rate. For instance, sawdust composting process can be enhanced. 2.5  CLAY Figure 2.5 Kaolinite Clay Figure 2.6 Montmorillonite Clay Figure 2.7 Illite Clay Clay is a fine textured earth, it is plastic when wet but hard and compact when dry. It being referred to as finest grain particles in a sediment, soil, or rock. Clay is a very fine-grained, unconsolidated rock matter, which is plastic when wet, but becomes hard and stony when heated. It has its origin in natural processes, mostly complex weathering, transported and deposited by sedimentation within geological periods. Clay is composed of silica (SiO2), Alumina (Al2O3) and water (H2O) plus appreciable concentration of oxides of iron, alkali and alkaline earth, and contains groups of crystalline substances known as clay minerals such as quartz, feldspar and mica. The majority of the oil and gas reservoir contains clay. Thus, these clay minerals such as montmorillonite, illite, and kaolinite mostly found in the rocks of oil and gas exploration. In the early age of oil exploration, clay minerals were studied to predict the quality of organic rick source rock and generation mechanism when scientists tried to investigate the origin of oil and gas (Grim, 1947, Brooks, 1952). At the same time, clay minerals were extensively analyses for diagenesis and reservoir quality prediction due to the application of petrological analysis and quantitative mineralogical analysis by X-ray diffraction (Griffin, 1971; Pettijohn, 1975; Heald and Larese, 1974; Bloch et al., 2002). On the other hand, it is important in oil sands. The particles will form adjacent to sand grains, and it will be occupied by the interstitial water found together with oil sands. However, the cohesion of clay is larger than granular soils. Clay is less permeable than a sandy soil, and low water drainage. Hence, the pore pressure induced by an increase in load is dissipated very slowly, and the transfer of stress and the corresponding increase in inter-granular pressure are likewise much slower. The dispersed of clay is free to travel within the reservoir thereby becoming mobile clays which can cause plugging of pore spaces due to migration. Therefore, deflocculation can occur due to low salinity-high pH, and natural repulsion forces due to not enough cations available. Once deflocculated, clay tends to migrate when the wetting phase becomes mobile. In addition to this, Clay swelling can be due to a salinity shock, where high salinity fresh water is introduced in a reservoir rock causing a shock to the system. Besides, montmorillonite clays can become mobile and then migrate causing issues with plugging of the pore space of a reservoir rock due to it being anionic charged can form thin microfilms on the surface of the sand control. 2.6  POROSITY OF RESERVOIR Figure 2.8 Porosity The porosity of rock is a measure of the capacity of reservoir rocks to contain fluids. Oil, gas and water are within the reservoir rocks that fluids were stored in the pore space. Higher capacities of reservoir rock it contains fluids, it has high porosity. Whereas, low porosity has low capacities reservoir rocks fluids contain. Therefore, porosity data are often employing qualitatively and quantitatively to determine and evaluate the potential volume of hydrocarbons contained in a reservoir. For instance, in a discovery well that shows the presence of hydrocarbons in the reservoir rocks, the set of data that is reviewed at least qualitatively to evaluate reservoir potential is porosity data acquired with either logging-while-drilling tools or by running wireline tools. These data are collected directly from the measurements of the core sample and well logs. It was to predict the reservoir characterization for the classification of lithological facies, and the assignment of permeabilities using porosity-permeability transforms. The porosity of rock is a measure of its capacity to contain fluids. Porosity is calculated as the pore volume of the rock divided by its bulk volume. à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¦ = à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¦ = porosity; Vp = pore volume; and VB = bulk volume. Pore volume is the total volume of pore spaces in the rock, and bulk volume is the physical volume of the rock, which includes the pore spaces and matrix materials (sand and shale, etc.) that compose the rock. 2.7FLOW RATE Figure 2.9 Fluid Flow Through Wellbore There is a critical fluid-flow rate beyond which the hydrodynamic force exceeds the binding forces holding fines particles together, and fines ( For instance, the lower the flow rate, the better the retention (Ballard and Beare 2006). Production can be affected by non-optimized inflow distribution. Drawdown and plugging can be affected by asphaltene and wax precipitation due to temperature reduction, the high viscosity of produced oil, resins present, near-wellbore pressure drop and flow convergence resistance created by the slotted liner (Trent 2005). Additionally, multiphase flow increases plugging potential and sand control issues. By depending on formation characteristics and multiphase flow, the interstitial flow velocity can either enhance or reduce near wellbore permeability (Bennion et. al. 2008). When only one phase flows in a reservoir, then there can be an allowable increase in the flow velocity to the slot more than if there is multiphase flow. Plugging and significant solids production occurs with the two-phase flow where water and oil flow since fines migration and transport only happens when the wetting phase is in motion in the porous media (Bennion et al. 2008). There is a critical fluid-flow rate beyond which the hydrodynamic force exceeds the binding forces holding fines particles together beyond which the fine started to move. A sudden increase in flow rate also could induce fines migration. 2.8SURFACTANT Surfactant mostly uses in Enhanced Oil Recovery, and it is to improve the wettability of porous rocks allowing water to flow through them faster displacing more oil. Surfactant Flooding can improve oil production by decreasing interfacial tension, improving oil mobility thus allowing better displacement of the oil by injected water. (Chon, 2014) The surfactant can be used to lower the amount of chemical usage in the recovery process, and it can decrease the chemical concentration to below 0.5 percentage. Surfactant provides safer enhanced oil recovery products at lower price. The most effective surfactant derived from plants are sunflower oil, soy and corn oil. These oils are no hazardous and non-toxic. (Hirasaki, et al., 2011) CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY 3.1  INTRODUCTION The accompanying section clarifies about the technique utilized as a part of this exploration to assemble the important information. The information was to assess how clay-sawdust as a possible sand control material and could enhance by the surfactant for sand control applications. 3.2  CLAY There is three type of clay which ha

Whole Exome Sequencing in Inherited Endocrine Disorders

Whole Exome Sequencing in Inherited Endocrine Disorders Background Molecular diagnosis is important in the management of various paediatric endocrine disorders including disorders of growth, metabolism, bone, hypoglycaemia and sexual development. Traditional PCR-based Sanger sequencing is the mainstay format for molecular testing in paediatric cases. However, the large number of gene defects associated with the various endocrine disorders renders gene-by-gene testing increasingly expensive and unattractive. The large number of potentially relevant genes makes it challenging for hospital molecular diagnostic laboratories to offer gene-based testing of all candidates. Given the high costs associated with single-gene tests, the selection of candidates for single-gene sequencing tends to be sequential rather than inclusive and parallel. In practice, different genes may be outsourced to different clinical or in some cases academic research laboratories which adds to the complexity. Using new high-throughput sequencing technologies, whole genomes, whole e xomes or candidate-gene panels (targeted gene sequencing) can now be cost-effectively sequenced for endocrine patients. In the near future, protocols involving next-generation sequencing would probably be considered as an appropriate component of routine clinical diagnosis for relevant patients. Defects of pituitary hormones lead to abnormalities in growth (e.g., short stature), sexual development, fertility, stress response and other metabolic processes. A number of genes coding for transcription factors have been identified, mutations in which cause medical disorders in humans associated with pituitary deficiencies [1-2]. Some of these factors, such as PROP1, TPIT, POU1F1, LHX3 and LHX4, play roles in the normal embryological development of the anterior pituitary. Mutations in these genes can lead to multiple pituitary hormone deficiencies and/or syndromic hypopituitarism [3]. The transcription factors such as HESX1, OTX2, SHH, SOX2 and SOX3 are involved in midline development. Mutations in these can cause septo-optic dysplasia or holoprosencephaly, both of which may include pituitary hormone deficiencies [4]. Other genes encode the precursors to pituitary hormones (growth hormone, ACTH [through processing of POMC], gonadotropic-luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone, and thyroid-stimulating hormone). Mutations in these genes lead to phenotypes characteristic of individual hormone deficiency. The pituitary secretory cells themselves respond to signals originating in the hypothalamus, some of which are also peptide hormones with specific receptors expressed on the responding cells; mutations in these genes or their cognate receptors can also cause combined or specific pituitary deficiencies [1]. However, many cases of congenital hypopituitarism still remain unexplained and most are presumably due to other causes, either mutations in other deve lopmental genes or epigenetic influences during embryogenesis. Short stature is a common presentation to the paediatric endocrinology clinics. However, no cause is identified in a large proportion of patients who are classified as having idiopathic short stature [5, 6, 7]. It is estimated that the underlying cause for short stature remains unknown in approximately 80% of patients [8]. In a large-scale pooled Next-Generation Sequencing study to identify genetic causes of short stature, 4928 genetic variants in 1077 genes were present in patients but not in control subjects [9]. Large-scale sequencing efforts have the potential to rapidly identify genetic aetiologies of short stature. In another study, seeking to identify known and genetic causes of short stature by conducting whole exome sequencing of the patients with severe short stature and their family members, genetic cause of short stature was found in 5 out of the 14 recruited patients [10]. Rare genetic defects in the GH/IGF-1 axis have been found to cause short stature. A higher frequenc y of rare CNVs (common number variants) has been reported in patients with short stature [8, 11]. A recent study to define genetic characterisation of a cohort of children clinically labelled as Growth Hormone or IGF1 insensitive found that whole exome sequencing contributed to the diagnosis of children with suspected growth hormone and IGF1 insensitivity, particularly in the Growth hormone insensitive subjects with low serum IGF1 SDS and height SDS [12]. It may be now possible to identify likely genetic causes of short stature by implementing genomic investigative techniques like whole exome sequencing in many of these children who have unknown reasons for their poor linear growth. Congenital Hyperinsulinism (CHI) is the most common cause of persistent and recurrent hypoglycaemia in infancy [13]. It is the result of unregulated insulin secretion from the pancreatic ÃŽ ²-cells leading to severe hypoglycaemia [13, 14]. This condition has been reported in nearly all major ethnic groups and affects at least 1/50,000 children of European descent [14]. CHI is caused by genetic defects in key genes regulating insulin secretion. The genetic basis of CHI involves mutations in nine different genes (ABCC8, KCNJ11, GLUD1, GCK, HADH, SLC16A1, HNF4A, HNF1A and UCP2), which regulate insulin secretion from the pancreatic ÃŽ ²-cells [14,15]. The most common molecular cause of CHI is the dysfunction of the pancreatic KATP channel encoded by the sulfonylurea receptor gene (ABCC8) and the inward rectifying potassium channel gene (KCNJ11) [14,15]. CHI can also be secondary to risk factors like birth asphyxia, intra-uterine growth retardation, Rh isoimmunisation and maternal diabetes mellitus or associated with various developmental syndromes [16]. Histologically, CHI can be associated either with diffuse insulin secretion or with focal adenomatous hyperplasia. Positron emission tomography scan using Fluorine-18 L-3, 4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (18-fluoro DOPA-TC-PET-scan) has been used to distinguish focal from diffuse forms. Medical treatments of CHI include diazoxide (KATP channel activator), somatostatin analogue (octreotide) injections, and appropriate diet. The surgical treatment with subtotal pancreatectomy is required in diffuse CHI when medical treatment and dietary therapies are ineffective, whereas focal CHI can be cured with resection of the focal area of adenomatous hyperplasia [14, 15, 16]. Recently, mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibitor sirolimus has been used in treatment of persistent severe CHI not amena ble to medical therapies [18]. CHI has been described as an associated finding in various syndromes like Beckwith-Wiedemann, Kabuki, Trisomy 13, Mosaic Turner, Sotos, Usher, Timothy, Costello, Central Hypoventilation syndrome and Leprechaunism (Insulin Resistance Syndrome) [17]. However, in many patients, with clinically defined syndromic features and with hypoglycaemia, no identifiable genetic cause contributing to hyperinsulinism is found. In a large series of 300 patients, genetic diagnosis was made only in 45.3% of the patients and mutations in ABCC8 were the commonest identifiable cause [19]. The vast majority of patients with Diazoxide-responsive CHI (77.6%) had no identifiable mutations, suggesting other genetic mechanisms [19]. Molecular diagnosis can be very important for clinicians to manage the patients more effectively and to counsel parents on the prognosis and disease recurrence. Whole Exome sequencing can be advantageous in these groups of patients to identify the mol ecular defects and to assess the coding variants that may be pathogenic in these patients [20]. Aims To identify novel genetic causes of rare inherited endocrine disorders in children with a focus on congenital hyperinsulinism, short stature of unknown etiology and IGF1 abnormalities by using whole exome sequencing. Experimental Design and Methods Patient Recruitment Patients with a diagnosis of CHI referred to Alder Hey Children’s Hospital, which is a national referral centre for CHI, will be recruited into the study. A written informed parental consent will be obtained. These patients will be biochemically confirmed as CHI using the following criteria: Blood glucose concentration of less than 3.0 mmol/l with detectable insulin and/or C-peptide Glucose requirement > 8mg/kg/min Low levels of ketones and fatty acids during the episode of hypoglycaemia Clinical and biochemical data will be collated from referral letter or by case note review. Patients with a secondary cause of CHI such as perinatal asphyxia, intra-uterine growth restriction, Rhesus isoimmunisation, infants of diabetic mothers and infants with Beckwith Wiedemann syndrome will be excluded from the study. Patients are considered to be unresponsive to medical treatment if recurrent hypoglycaemia episodes ( Patients attending the Paediatric Endocrinology clinic at Alder Hey Children’s Hospital with severe short stature (>3 SDS below mean) for age and sex in whom the standard clinical work up has not revealed a diagnosis for their short stature will be recruited into the study. Patients referred or evaluated for growth hormone insensitivity (growth failure, low serum IGF1 and normal/elevated serum GH) or IGF1 insensitivity (pre- and postnatal growth failure associated with relatively high IGF1 levels) will also be recruited into the study. A written parental informed consent will be obtained prior to the recruitment. Whole Exome Sequencing (WES) WES will be performed at the Centre for Genomic Research (CGR) based at the University of Liverpool. The test will be ordered after explaining the risks and benefits of testing to the patient and obtaining written informed consent. Each patient (and their parents or guardians) will be advised of the potential disclosure of conditions unrelated to the indication for testing that might warrant treatment or additional medical surveillance for the patient and possibly other family members. Peripheral-blood samples will be obtained to isolate DNA from the patient and both parents where possible. High-throughput sequencing will be performed using Illumina HiSeq2500. The genomic DNA samples from probands will be fragmented, ligated to Illumina multiplexing and amplified by means of a polymerase-chain-reaction assay with the use of primers with sequencing barcodes. Variants that were deemed clinically significant will be confirmed by means of Sanger sequencing. Parental samples, if available, will also be analysed by means of Sanger sequencing. Further functional analysis will be undertaken to establish the pathogenicity of the identified variant by utilising the in-house lab facilities at Institute of Child Health. Relevance of the proposed project Despite the advances in understanding the molecular pathogenesis, specific genetic determinants are not known in nearly 50% of patients with CHI and 80% of children with short stature. Whole exome sequencing in this group of patients will help to understand and identify the potential causative mutations in genes implicated in insulin regulation and growth. This will help the clinicians to provide optimal treatment and to counsel patients on disease progression and recurrence risk. Identification of novel genetic aetiology has the potential to identify novel therapeutic strategies for these patients. The applicant will spend time initially at Alder Hey Children’s Hospital to recruit patients and then at Cincinnati Children’s Hospital to learn the techniques of WES, bioinformatics and functional analysis. The applicant will then return to Alder Hey Children’s Hospital Institute of Child Health, University of Liverpool to complete the study and strengthen the local research expertise relevant to next generation sequencing.

The Movie, Real Women Have Curves Essay -- Cinema

Being a curvaceous young woman is hard enough. Especially when you’re trying to find love, you’re seeking approval and anticipating a better future for yourself. The film Real Women Have Curves stresses how important higher education is to a Mexican-American teenager and the wrath she endures from her mother because of her weight and aspiration. Mark Twain stated that, â€Å"Keep away from those who try to belittle your ambitions. Small people always do that, but the really great make you believe that you too can become great† (http://thinkexist.com/quotation/keepaway_from_those_who_try_to_belittleyour/215215.html). I believe I can personally relate to Real Women Have Curves, the reason being is because I’m a daughter, I’m overweight, and I’m seeking a post-secondary education. This is a synopsis of Real Women Have Curves; I’ll reveal why the film is so inspiring to me, I’ll give feedback from movie reviews, and I’ll use documents from my course’s textbook, to fully develop my ideas. Real Women Have Curves is a 2002 movie adapted from a 1987 screenplay by George LaVoo and Josefina Lopez. The film was directed by Patricia Cardoso and produced by LaVoo. The film debuted at the Sundance Film Festival, where it won the Audience Award. Real Women Have Curves stars America Ferrera as Ana, an intelligent and ambitious 18-year-old who has just graduated from Beverly Hills High School in Los Angeles. Ana’s wish is to attend Columbia University; however, Ana’s mother, Carmen, sees a different future for her. She’s determined that Ana will become a seamstress, at her oldest daughter’s dress store. Carmen even tells Ana’s father, â€Å""I can educate her. I'll teach her how to sew. I'll teach her how to take care of her husband†. Roger Ebert stat... ...f- hollywood-celebrities-what-is-the-average-size-of-a-hollywood- actress-history Ebert, Roger. (2011, January 1). Real women have curves. Retrieved from http://www.metacritic.com/movie/real-women-have-curves Flixster.(2002, October 20). Rotten tomatoes. Retrived from http://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/real_women_have_curves/#!reviews=all&page=3 Graff, G., Birkenstein, C., & Durst, R. K. (2009). Fat as a Feminist Issue. "They say/I say": the moves that matter in academic writing: with readings (pp. 202-203). New York: W.W. Norton & Co. Graff, G., Birkenstein, C., & Durst, R. K. (2009). The Growing College Gap. "They say/I say": the moves that matter in academic writing : with readings (p. 379). New York: W.W. Norton & Co. Thinkexist.com. (1999, January 1). Retrieved from http://thinkexist.com/quotation/keepawayfromthosewhotrytobelittleyour/215215.html

Essay --

B00466902 Introduction to African History (AFST/HIST 283A) December 16th, 2013 1. (a) Africans and Europeans have relations that date all the way back to the origins of humans and human migrations. Scholars have hypothesized that Homo erectus found in Europe about 800,000 years ago originated and migrated from Africa Europeans and Africans also had religious relations; which is evident from the spread of Christianity, introduced by the Byzantines, throughout Africa specifically in North Africa, the Nile Valley, and the Horn of Africa. Aside from religious relations, Africans and Europeans also had economic and political relations as a result of European colonization and conquest of the African regions. Economic relations were a result of Europeans coming into Africa and taking natural resources to benefit from in the production of goods and trade. Another specific example of economic relations between Europeans and Africans is the practice of mercantilism, in which European nations were the mother countries and countries of Africa were the colonies. As the moth er country, Europeans, would take natural resources from the colony, African regions, to produce goods, which would then be sold back to the colony. This also attributed to the political relations between Africans and Europeans because the economic desires of the Europeans often led to them controlling the Africans to maximize profit and their own personal benefits; which is directly related to slavery, one of the biggest relations between Africans and Europeans. Slavery and the slave trade in turn created social relations because slaves were considered to be a class of their own. Another social relation that resulted from slavery was the creation a â€Å"new race† known as the... ...ural resources. Post independence Africans although not ruled by Europeans nations such as Britain, France, and the Dutch were still dependent on these nations for goods and other trading purposes. Culturally, post independence Africans and precolonial Africans were different because post independence Africans were greatly influenced by the mother countries that ruled them because their mother countries cultures were inflicted on them whether it was language, food, religion, or even clothing. Precolonial Africans and post independence Africans also differed politically in the aspect that precolonial African governments were more tribe like, while post independence Africans governments had western influence and some cases lead to dictatorships as seen in Liberia dictated by Samuel Doe, Zaire dictated by Mobutu Sese Seko, and Somalia dictated by Muhammad Siad Barre.

A Cultural Problem, an Economic Crisis Essay -- Economics Finance

In the past two years, Western society has experienced what many of its leaders have called the worst financial crisis since the Great Depression. At the very least, it has been the worst period of instability that our younger generations have ever seen in their lifetimes. But unlike other financial crises that have largely been triggered by external forces, such as the oil embargoes of the 1970’s, this latest one was a product of our own internal policies and practices; even more so, of our cultural outlooks on the very notion of finance, credit, and debt itself. Specifically, the financial crisis that has just come to pass was the result of the new culture of neo-liberalism and the hyper-individuality and debt-based consumption that it brought with it. What’s worse is that, without an admission of this new culture, or any effort to change it, our current economic system will be regularly plagued with such crises from here on into the future. Before any efforts can be made towards a cultural shift however, we must first understand, at least briefly, the current socio-political ideas that are creating such issues in the modern western market. As Kotz and McDonough put it, â€Å"the concept of ‘global neo-liberalism’ best captures the contemporary social reality.† This ‘new social reality’ was, as they put it, a return to older liberalism, and a retreat from the more government-controlled, Keynesian style of the post-war years. With this relaxing of government control or influence over the markets, we saw an emergence of a new individualistic, and privatized outlook on the market system. Neo-liberalism as doctrine, creed, or culture, or whatever you may call it, became almost something of a throwback to the early days of capitalism... ...olitical Economy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001. Dumenil, Gerard and Levy, Dominique. â€Å"The economics of US imperialism at the turn of the 21st century,† Review of International Political Economy, 11:4 (2004), pp. 657-676. Retrieved from EBSCO, 21 April 2010. Eichengreen, Barry. â€Å"The Last Temptations of Risk,† National Interest, 101 (2009), pp. 8-14. Retrieved from EBSCO, 21 April 2010. McDonough, Terrence, Michael Reich and David M. Kotz, eds. Contemporary Capitalism and Its Crises: Social Structure of Accumulation Theory for the 21st Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010. Smart, Barry. Economy, Culture and Society: A sociological critique of neo-liberalism. Buckingham: Open University Press, 2003. Westra, Richard, ed. Confronting Global Neoliberalism: Third World Resistance and Development Strategies. Atlanta: Clarity Press, 2010.

Criminal Justice Communications Essay

Communication is part of everyday life. Though we all have the ability to communicate, it is communicating effectively that matters most. Whether you are giving a speech, teaching a class or having a conversation with a co-worker, communicating effectively can make the difference between being understood and being dismissed. Therefore, it is important to understand the principles of effective communication and how you can apply them in your everyday conversations. Show Respect When speaking to another person or a large crowd, show respect to your audience. Use wording and verbiage that correspond to the same educational level as your audience. For instance, you wouldn’t use complex financial terms with a group of fifth graders to explain how a bank works as you would with a group of college students. Never Interrupt Whether communicating one-on-one or with a group is it impolite to interrupt anyone while they are speaking to you. This includes cutting someone off when she is asking a question you already know the answer to. Allow the individual to finish making her point before responding. Otherwise, the communication becomes one-sided and ineffective. Show Kindness Start your communication by making yourself friendly and approachable. This can include smiling and beginning communication with honest praise. When the situation warrants a serious conversation, such as reprimanding a student or employee, be professional about it and keep the tone non-confrontational and informative. Do not let emotions or outside thoughts affect how you communicate with the individual and keep the conversation geared toward the issue. Show Interest Communication does not just revolve around what you say but how you act while another is speaking to you. Show that you are interested in what the person is saying by giving him your full attention. Maintain eye contact with the person you are talking to and do not allow yourself to be distracted by people walking by or other activities in the room. Nod your head to let the speaker know you understand what he is saying. Choose Your Time Select the right time for your communication. Typically, cornering someone at the end of the day when she wants to go home or during a stressful part of the day will make the communication less effective or put pressure on both parties to curtail the discussion. Do not try to communicate to people who are preoccupied with other tasks or try to listen to someone while you are so occupied. Have an Objective There is an objective with every form of communication, even the simplest one. If your objective is to teach a coworker how to use a new spreadsheet, and then make sure you are prepared to teach him how to use it with notes or by showing him physically. Use clear and concise wording and ask for feedback. Do not allow yourself to get off task from your objective or  distracted. Once you’ve delivered your message or instructions, either have your co-worker review what you’ve told him or have him demonstrate the task hands-on to show his understanding.